Driscoll defined instruction as the "deliberate
arrangement of events to facilitate a learner's acquisition
of some goal." Instructional technology focuses on
instruction, rather than performance and performance solutions,
and offers training as a solution. This solution is sought
to solve human behavior issues resulting in a lack of knowledge.
Cass Gentry defines instructional technology
as "the systemic and systematic application of strategies
and techniques derived from behavior and physical sciences
concepts and other knowledge to the solution of instruction
problems".
So, derived from behavioral concepts,
hence behaviorism psychology, David Jonassen understandable
stated that "learning, according to behaviorism, is
a change in the behavioral dispositions of an organism".
Instructional Technology as a Field
Goals and directions include the expansion
of the ability to offer instruction where needed, while
expanding on the psychology and cognitive science that supports
the design methodology. As we continue to offer instruction,
we learn more about the social value of this instruction
and how our learners use the information offered.
The historical foundation of instructional
technology is based in psychology where studies found stimulus-response
and reinforcement theory was influenced by motivation as
well. With WWII and the hundreds of thousands of people
who needed rapid training, objectives written as desired
behaviors became important. Soon, the chunking of information
into smaller units and rewarding appropriate responses became
obvious.
In the 50's Benjamin Bloom's taxonomy
of intellectual behaviors (knowledge, skills, and attitude)
provided instructors a means by which to decide how to impart
instructional content to learners most effectively. Dr.
Bloom's intent was to develop a classification framework
for writing educational objectives
Bloom's Taxonomy of Cognitive Objectives
| Category |
Description |
| Knowledge |
Ability to recall previously
learned material |
| Comprehension |
Ability to grasp meaning,
explain, restate ideas |
| Application |
Ability to use learned
material in new situations |
| Analysis |
Ability to separate material
into component parts and show relationships between
parts |
| Synthesis |
Ability to put together
the separate ideas to form new whole, establish new
relationships |
| Evaluation |
Ability to judge the worth
of material against stated criteria |
In the 60's Robert Glaser and Robert Mager
submitted information regarding criterion-referenced measurement
(assessing student entry-level behavior and determining
whether the learner acquired the needed behaviors or not)
and construction of performance objectives (behavior, conditions,
and criteria), respectively.
Then, Robert Gagne defined his view of
psychomoter skills, verbal information, intellectual skills,
cognitive strategies, and attitudes. In addition, his nine
instructional events detail the conditions necessary for
learning to occur
(Gain attention,
Inform learner of objective,
Stimulate recall of prior knowledge,
Present the material,
Provide guidance for learning,
Elicit performance,
Provide feedback,
Assess performance, and
Enhance retention and transfer.
Over time, the ADDIE model was fully used
in training efforts everywhere. As the economy changed,
business leaders started attempting to define how training
added value to their organizations and Roger Kaufman stepped
in to assist.
In what contexts or settings is IT practiced?
Where ever instructional design is necessary as an intervention.
This can include businesses, government, and in schools.
What are the typical deliverables associated
with IT?
Standard deliverables include an analysis
report or document, design document, development plan, implementation
plan, and evaluation plan.
How would you describe the work of
an IT practitioner?
Typical work would be the creation of
the standard deliverables defined above as well as the course
material and evaluation documents.
What is the status of research in the
field?
I believe one of the heaviest researched
areas at this time is that of distance learning and electronic
learning. Studies are being conducted as to how well students
learn through computer only, without student, face-to-face
interaction. Researchers are seeking a specific identification
of the right blend of e-learning with classroom instruction.
William Horton, Saul Carliner, and Lee and Owens are just
a few people who are researching and writing about electronic
and media enriched learning.
What standards exist in the field?
ASTD has the most respected set of standards,
in my opinion, with their E-Learning Courseware Certification
standards that were composed of e-learning experts, scholars,
and ISD practitioners. The standards are supported by examples,
clarifications, definitions, and scoring criteria. More
information can be found at http://workflow.ecc-astdinstitute.org/index.cfm?sc=help&screen_name=cert_view.
What important models are used in the
field?
The most developed models include the
ADDIE model.
The Dick and Carey Design Model uses a systems approach
for designing instruction. One of the best known models,
its approach to designing instruction is similar to that
of software engineering. The design model describes all
the phases of an iterative process that starts by identifying
instructional goals and ends with summative evaluation.
